Blood Testing

Screening tests are special diagnostic examinations taken at birth to check if a newborn has certain potentially harmful diseases. In compliance with U.S. state law, doctors take a blood sample from the heel, which is analyzed for any number of diseases and birth defects. The sample is usually taken on the day after birth, and usually involves only two or three drops of blood. A separate test is also performed to check that the baby’s hearing is properly functioning.

The motivation for checking at birth is strictly logical: by examining a child at birth, doctors are able to catch and treat or prepare a strategy for treating any indicated problems. If this strikes parents with some alarm, the results aren’t necessarily dire news: most screenings only show indicators that doctors should pursue more tests before making a final diagnosis.

Most newborns pass the screening tests with flying colors: statistics show less than one tenth of one percent are ever found to have the tests’ targets, despite often comprehensive blood workups. However, because each state separately determines which tests are given, different states routinely provide different combinations and batches of tests.

Common Types of Tests

Blood tests are usually taken to check for treatable genetic, endocrinologic (hormonal), metabolic, or hematologic (blood-related) diseases. The tests are not mandated arbitrarily. Common factors for determining whether to include the test include:

- whether the disease can be diagnosed at birth;

- whether the test is common enough within the surrounding population to justify the test;

- whether a simple test exists; whether treating the baby will prevent irreversible damages;

- whether the disease can be missed clinically at birth (in other words, as a follow up to the doctor’s at-birth examination.)

Hospitals commonly perform the blood tests while the baby is still in the pediatric nursery. For babies born at home or away from the hospital, doctors recommend bringing the newborn in for testing no later than the seventh day after birth.

Disease Testing Mandated Everywhere

While states determine the makeup of screening test batteries, federal law requires them all to test for some diseases. According to the U.S. National Newborn Screening and Genetics Resource Center, only four tests are currently mandated by every state, including:

- phenylketonuria (PKU)

- congenital hypothyroidism (CH)

- galactosemia (GAL)

- sickle cell disease (SS, SC etc.).

This list is in addition to the mandatory hearing test, which does not involve the bloodwork. Because PKU was the first screening test to be developed, the battery of screening tests in sometimes still referred to as “the PKU” test, even when many more diseases are tested.

Expanding the Test Battery

With the arrival of special tandem mass spectrometry testing (abbreviated as MS/MS) during the 1990s, the number of feasible tests performed on the blood sample rapidly expanded to include a broader range of diseases and genetic disorders. While not all hospitals will include the more comprehensive battery of tests made possible by MS/MS, private screenings using the advanced equipment have become affordable in recent years.

In 2005, an expert panel assembled by the National Department of Health and Human Services and the March of Dimes released a report listing thirty tests they recommend for every state, including screenings for hypothyroidism, cystic fibrosis, and sickle cell anemia.

Getting More Tests Than Your State Screens For

The tests are usually determined by each state’s Department of Health, according to the criteria listed above. A listing of which states test for which diseases is available at the National Newborn Screening & Genetics Center’s website: http://genes-r-us.uthscsa.edu/nbsdisorders.pdf.

If you’re concerned your baby might not get all the testing you feel is necessary, there are other options to the tests provided by the hospital. Your doctor can recommend a range of choices, including university hospitals, private laboratories, and special clinics. MS/MS testing typically runs about $89 for a complete range of tests. A listing of facilities offering expanded testing can be found at the Save the Babies

Declining Testing

The drawing of blood is virtually instantaneous, and taken from the newborn’s heel as a means of minimizing your baby’s discomfort. Testing is usually done automatically, as a matter of course inside the hospital. In a handful of states, the testing is compulsory – parents have no choice but to allow the testing as a matter of public health. In Maryland, The District of Columbia, and Wyoming, however, hospitals must obtain parental consent before the testing is performed.

Prostate specific antigen (PSA) was discovered in 1979. It is a protein produced by the cells that line the inside of the prostate. Prostate cancer changes the cellular barriers that normally keep PSA within the ductal system of the prostate, causing PSA to be released into the blood in higher quantities. All of the tests below consist of a simple blood draw and a laboratory analysis.

The total PSA test measures the total amount of PSA in your blood. The results are given in ng/ml (nanograms of PSA per milliliter blood), and a total PSA of 4 ng/ml or higher is considered to be a possible sign of prostate cancer. The risk increases as this number goes higher.

The total PSA and DRE (digital rectal examination) are generally the first line of tests done for detecting prostate cancer. If a suspicious finding occurs in either of these tests, your doctor will probably order follow-up tests, like a percent-free PSA test or transrectal prostate ultrasound, to determine if you should have a prostate biopsy.

The PSA velocity test is a measurement of the total PSA level over a period of time. Total PSA velocity should be determined over 24 months by measuring the total PSA on at least three separate occasions, spaced as equally apart as possible — ideally, every 8 months. A rise in total PSA of over 0.75 ng/ml per year over this time is suggestive of prostate cancer and may warrant having a prostate biopsy.

The total PSA that is measured in the blood exists in two major forms — PSA that circulates bound to proteins (the more abundant form) and PSA that circulates “free” in the blood (not bound to proteins). The percent-free PSA test, by measuring only that amount of the total PSA that is in the free form, enhances the overall reliability of the PSA test, because men with prostate cancer tend to have a lower percentage of PSA in the free form than men without prostate cancer.

The percent-free PSA test is mainly used as a follow-up test in men who are found to have a total PSA level in the so-called “gray area” — between 4 ng/ml and 9.9 ng/ml — to help determine who should undergo a prostate biopsy and who should not. Currently, a prostate biopsy is recommended in these men when their percent-free PSA is less than 10 percent. A biopsy is usually not recommended when their percent-free PSA is greater than 25 percent. If the percent-free PSA is between 10 and 25 percent, the patient’s overall risk profile is used to decide how to proceed.

Follow-Up Testing

Once your doctor determines that you have an abnormal digital rectal examination or an abnormal PSA (based on total levels, percent-free PSA, PSA velocity, or a combination), the next step will most likely be a transrectal ultrasound of your prostate.

For the transrectal prostate ultrasound (TPU), a cylinder-shaped ultrasound probe will be gently placed in your rectum as you lie on your left side with your knees bent. The probe is rocked back and forth to obtain images of the entire prostate. The procedure takes about 15 to 25 minutes to perform.

The TPU can display both the smooth-surfaced outer shell of the prostate and the core tissues surrounding the urethra (the tube that comes out of the bladder down through the penis). The doctor will look at the entire volume of your prostate.

If the TPU shows an enlarged prostate, this indicates either inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) or benign enlargement of the gland. A TPU showing either a distinct lump or an irregular area within the gland suggests cancer. If a lump or irregularity is seen, a biopsy will be taken in order to definitively diagnose cancer.

Reliability

Total PSA Test

The total level of PSA in serum is increased by factors other than cancer. So, like the DRE, total blood PSA alone is neither accurate nor optimally specific for prostate cancer screening. Only 15 to 25 percent of men with an elevated total PSA (greater than 4 ng/dL) are found to actually have prostate cancer. Similarly, up to 30 percent of men who do in fact have prostate cancer have a normal total PSA blood level.

PSA Velocity Test

This test has a reported sensitivity of about 72 percent and a specificity of 95 percent. Remember, sensitivity is the ability to detect the disease when it’s truly there. Specificity is the ability to detect the absence of disease when it is truly absent. Therefore, this test is pretty good at detecting prostate cancer when you in fact have it, and it is very good at informing you that you do not have it. However, since this test is done over a 2-year period, it isn’t appropriate when a quick diagnosis is necessary.

Health Risks

There are none for the various PSA tests; these are simple needle draws. And there are no serious risks from a TPU without a biopsy. Infection is rare, only occurring as a result of biopsy (if one is done) rather than as a result of the ultrasound itself.

Cost of the Screening Tests

The standard PSA blood test costs between $20 and $60. Some self-testing home kits are available for about $40 from Web sites like TestCountrycom. The free PSA blood test and the PSA velocity test cost about $100 each. Medicare and most health insurers typically cover these tests for men over 50.

The source of the basic energy required for the human cells is glucose. Glucose is a sugar that the body derives from the intake of carbohydrate foodstuffs. This blood sugar level is regulated and kept within the necessary levels by insulin, which is a hormone produced by the pancreas. Insulin is released into the bloodstream whenever the glucose levels rise beyond the normal levels. The normal blood sugar levels are between 70 and 150 mg. In the natural course of the day, it is observed that the blood sugar level is usually lower in the mornings. The level rises after every subsequent meal.

Medically, when the normal blood sugar levels rise above 150 mg, it is clinically diagnosed as hyperglycemia or in lay terms, high blood sugar. The low levels below 70 mg are clinically referred to as hypoglycemia. The condition of hypoglycemia is also referred to as low blood sugar. It is essential to note that hypoglycemia is a fatal condition that is accompanied by symptoms such as lethargy, irritability and even loss of consciousness. The normal blood sugar levels, when not regulated naturally within the body, result in a condition called diabetes mellitus. The diabetic condition can cause eye, kidney and nerve damage, in the long run.

It is very essential to regularly have a blood glucose test conducted to measure the levels of glucose in the bloodstream. This helps eradicate the possibility of diabetes, and to check for hypoglycemia. Today, there are several types of glucose tests and treatments to check and maintain the normal blood sugar levels. There is the ‘fasting blood sugar test’ commonly conducted to check the rise or fall in the glucose levels after a prescribed eight-hour fast. The levels are required to fall and get recorded between 70 and 99 mg to be declared as normal blood sugar levels.

There is also the ‘two-hour postprandial blood sugar test’. This test measures the blood sugar level rise or fall two hours after a meal. Normal blood sugar levels in the case of this test need to fall between 70 and 145 mg. Now, there are a number of self help gadgets too that enable you to check the blood sugar levels at home. The random blood sugar tests can be conducted throughout the day, irrespective of the meal times. The blood sugar levels should be between 70 and 125 to be declared ‘normal’ in the case of the random testing method.

There is also an ‘oral glucose tolerance test’ conducted to diagnose diabetes. The test to confirm the normal blood sugar levels is conducted after consuming a glucose-based drink. In case you are in any doubt about your blood sugar levels, it is best to contact your physician and sign up for testing. Today, with our erratic lifestyles and random eating habits, there are a number of conditions that can cause a shift in the normal blood sugar levels. The diabetic condition occurs when the body can no more regulate the blood sugar levels in the bloodstream. This condition is usually due to the interruption of some sort in the production of insulin by the pancreas. Without insulin, blood sugar levels tend to increase, leading to dire consequences.

Type 1 or juvenile diabetes strikes children and adolescents, while Type 2 is a condition that affects adults. In the case of Type 1 diabetes, to achieve the desired normal blood sugar levels, insulin has to be injected into the bloodstream. In Type 2 diabetes, the body is unable to effectively use the insulin produced. The resultant demand on the pancreas for insulin ends up with the organ losing all ability to produce insulin at all. The symptoms of diabetes show up in the form of excessive thirst, passing urine frequently and sudden weight loss. It is very important to maintain the normal blood sugar levels to eradicate the condition.

To maintain the normal blood sugar levels, it is essential to maintain a healthy and constantly monitored and height proportionate weight. Even a five to ten percent reduction in body weight can result in reduction to the risk of diabetes. Any kind of physical activity can also lower your blood sugar levels. A combination of physical activity and monitored or clinically approved food choice enables you to maintain the normal blood sugar levels. It has been observed that eating excessive carbohydrates stresses out the pancreas to maintain the normal blood sugar levels. Regular exercise and proper nutrition are very important.

Diabetes:
Diabetes is a health condition marked by the presence of high levels of blood glucose in the body. In normal circumstances, the blood sugar in our body is absorbed by the cells and converted into energy with the help of the hormone Insulin (produced in the pancreas). Excess blood glucose is absorbed and stored in the liver, again with the stimulation of Insulin; another pancreatic hormone Glucagon helps release the glucose stored in the liver as and when required by the body.

Sometimes, however, the body does not produce Insulin in the required quantity or the cells fail to react to the hormone. So the blood glucose is not converted into energy and is retained as it is.

The retention of blood glucose in high levels in the body can bring on a host of serious health problem. These problems include heart disease , stroke, kidney damage, eye damage, blood circulation problems, nerve damage to the feet and other parts of the body, and impotence.

There are different causes for Diabetes, including hereditary, lifestyle, and age-related factors. Some of the common symptoms are constant fatigue, increased thirst, frequent urination, weight loss, cramps, and blurred vision. If you experience any of these, it is important that you go for diabetes testing.

Diabetes Testing:
A blood sugar test is taken as a diagnostic tool for Diabetes testing. This test is carried out in different ways -

* You may be required to fast for at least 14 hours beforehand.
* You don’t have to fast. Blood samples are taken randomly several times during the course of the day.
* You are given a drink containing high levels of glucose and blood samples are taken and checked at regular intervals for two hours.

Taking the blood sample is a very simple procedure. When you visit the clinic or hospital, they will wrap a tight band about your upper arm to slow the blood circulation and make it easy to find the veins. Once they’ve located a vein, they’ll swab the area with alcohol, inject with a hypodermic needle, and draw out the blood sample. Then the constricting band is removed, a cotton ball held on the injected area to stop the bleeding and then a piece of sticking plaster is applied on it. And that’s it.

But, even the simplest of procedures can have their share of complications. In this case, some people may experience faintness or nausea when confronted with the hypodermic needles or at the sight of blood, or may have an adverse reaction to the oral glucose test. There is a chance – fortunately, not a common one – of the injected point bleeding or bruising or developing an infection. Sometimes multiple injections are required to collect blood samples, and this can be problematic. Talk to your doctor about any special care you need to take if complications arise.

After the blood samples are collected, they undergo analysis in the laboratory. If they happen to have higher levels of blood glucose than normal, this is an indication of Diabetes.

Bear in mind though that the blood sugar tests can be affected by the following -

* What you have eaten or drunk.
* What medications, if any, you are on. Oral contraceptives, some diuretics and corticosteroids can raise blood sugar levels.
* Whether you have recently been ill, injured or undergone a surgery. These can cause fluctuations in blood sugar levels.

Treatment for Diabetes:
Treatment for Diabetes is determined according to whether you have been diagnosed with Gestational Diabetes or Diabetes Mellitus. The main treatment aim, however, in either kind of Diabetes is to control the blood sugar levels and maintain them at the normal range.

Gestational Diabetes is a temporary form of diabetes that occurs in pregnant women – during pregnancy, routine tests are carried out to check for this form pf Diabetes. Gestational Diabetes usually goes away after the birth of the baby and the mother shows no more symptoms of Diabetes, but it needs to be monitored carefully during the pregnancy.

The more serious and long-term form of Diabetes is Diabetes Mellitus, which again has two forms, Type 1 Diabetes (which occurs when the body cannot produce any Insulin) and Type 2 Diabetes (which occurs when the Insulin produced in the body is either not enough or not effective). Diabetes Mellitus cannot be cured, but it can be controlled with medication, diet and exercise, and the patient can lead a sufficiently normal life.

Diabetes treatment can include -

* Eating a low fat, low salt, and high carbohydrate diet.
* Avoiding sugar and sugary food and drinks.
* Taking regular exercise.
* Taking insulin injections and any other required medications.
* Regularly checking blood sugar levels with glucose test strips.

Liver function tests are done on a patient’s serum or plasma sample, procured by phlebotomy, by a medical technologist. This clinical biochemistry laboratory blood analysis furnishes crucial data regarding the condition of the patient’s liver. A hepatic function panel is a blood test wherein low or high levels may point to liver diseases or damage. This panel measures the blood levels of protein albumin, bilirubin and liver enzymes.

Albumin measurement
Albumin is the major constituent of the total protein in the liver. The remnant is called globulin. Albumin must be present as 3.9 to 5.0 g/dL. In chronic liver diseases like “cirrhosis” or “nephrotic syndrome” the level is decreased. Poor nutrition or protein catabolism may cause “hypoalbuminaemia”.

Aspartate transaminase : AST
This is also called “serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase” or “aspartate aminotransferase”. This enzyme is related to liver parenchymal cells. It’s level must be 10 to 34 IU/L. This level is raised if there is acute liver damage.

Alanine transaminase : ALT
This is also called “serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase” or “alanine aminotransferase”. This enzyme is present in liver cells (hepatocytes). It’s level must be 8 to 37 IU/L. This level rises in case of acute liver damage like “viral hepatitis” or “paracetamol overdose”.

The ratio of AST to ALT is used to differentiate between the reasons of liver damage.

Alkaline phosphatase : ALP
This is an enzyme that is present in the cells lining the biliary ducts of the liver. If the range is 44 to 147 IU/L, it is normal. This level rises in case of infiltrative diseases of the liver, intrahepatic cholestasis or large bile duct obstruction.

Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase : GGT
This is a more sensitive marker for cholestatic damage than ALP and is very specific to the liver. The standard range is 0 to 51 IU/L. Even very petty and sub-clinical levels of liver dysfunction can cause a rise in this range. Both acute and chronic alcohol toxicity raise GGT. The reason of an isolated elevation in ALP can be detected by GGT.

Total bilirubin : TBIL
An increase in the total bilirubin can lead to jaundice.

* Hepatic problems are caused due to deficiencies in bilirubin metabolism due to “cirrhosis” or “viral hepatitis”.
* Prehepatic problems are caused due to “hemolytic anemias” or “internal hemorrhage”. There is an increased bilirubin production.
* Posthepatic problems are caused due to obstruction of the bile ducts. There is a deficiency in bilirubin excretion.

Direct bilirubin

* When direct bilirubin is normal, then the unconjugated bilirubin may be problematic : viral hepatitis, cirrhosis or hemolysis may be present
* When direct bilirubin is elevated, then the excretion of bilirubin may be problematic : cancer or bile duct obstruction by gallstones may be present

Prothrombin time test : PTT
Liver cell damage and bile flow obstruction both effect proper blood clotting. The time taken by the blood to clot is measured by this test.

Alpha-fetoprotein test
The fetal liver and testes generate this protein. It is a symptom of hepatitis or cancer.

Mitochondrial Antibodies test
If such antibodies are present, they prove the existence of chronic active hepatitis, primary biliary cirrhosis or other autoimmune disorders.

Other liver function tests

* Increased level of Lactate dehydrogenase possibly means liver damage
* Ability to produce glucose is the final function that is lost during exploding liver failure
* 5′ nucleotidase is a substitute for GGT to confirm if an elevated ALP has a biliary or extra-biliary origin
* the International normalized ratio if increased indicates that the synthesis of vitamin-K dependent coagulation factors has been affected and the blood will take more time to clot. This is vital is the patient is to be operated.

Liver functions

* generating nearly 80% cholesterol
* maintaining correct quantity of glucose
* producing urea
* transforming glucose to glycogen
* producing some amino acids that are the building blocks of proteins
* producing substances that break down fats
* filtering alcohol from the blood
* storing vitamins and minerals

When these functions are affected by some liver problems, the following common symptoms may be seen:

* jaundice
* liver enlargement
* ascites
* cholestasis
* portal hypertension
* liver encephalopathy
* liver failure

Sugar is an important source of energy, especially for the brain. The amount of glucose in the blood is carefully controlled by the endocrine (glandular) system. This system causes sugar to be stored or used for energy, depending on the needs of your body. The blood glucose test is performed to monitor the level of glucose in the blood and hence detect both hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia, which helps in the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus.

The several different types of blood glucose tests performed are as follows:

Fasting Blood Sugar Test (FBS) measures the level of glucose in the body, 8 hours after the last meal. It is the first test performed to diagnose diabetes. The normal range for people with no diabetes is lower than 100 milligrams of glucose per deciliter of blood (mg/dL). If the level of glucose in the blood is between 100 mg/dL and 125 mg/dL, this indicates that the patient has a condition known as prediabetes. In such scenarios, the tests are repeated on regular periods and dietary restrictions are suggested to the patient. However, if the level of sugar exceeds 126 mg/dL, then the patient is diagnosed with diabetes.

Random Blood Sugar Test (RBS) measures the level of glucose in the body at any point of time. If the level of sugar is between 140 mg/dL and 200 mg/dL, the patient is diagnosed with prediabetes. If the level of sugar exceeds 200 mg/dL, then the patient is diagnosed with diabetes.

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test is performed to diagnose Gestational Diabetes which occurs during pregnancy. It is the process of taking a series of blood glucose measurements after the patient drinks a sweet liquid that contains a high quantity of glucose. A normal blood sugar level after an oral glucose tolerance test is lower than 140 mg/dL. If the blood sugar level is 140 mg/dL to 199 mg/dL then the patient is diagnosed with prediabetes.

Glycated Hemoglobin Test (A1C) is not performed to diagnose diabetes. Rather, it helps evaluate as to how well a patient is managing diabetes. The A1C test reflects the average blood sugar level for an average of two to three months. The test results show as to what percentage is the hemoglobin sugar coated (glycated). The normal range for people with no diabetes is 4 to 6% while the patients with diabetes are requested to maintain the A1C level to less the 7%. However, if the level is greater than 7%, then the patient may need to change the diabetes treatment plan.

The above tests are performed by a laboratory on the blood sample obtained from you. The results are obtained in a few minutes. Glucose levels in urine also can be measured. Many people with diabetes have glucose in their urine. However, the level in the blood must be very high before glucose can be detected in the urine. For this reason, tests for glucose in urine are not used to diagnose or monitor diabetes.

Diabetics must monitor their own blood glucose levels, often several times a day, to determine how far above or below normal their glucose is and to determine what oral medications or insulin(s) they may need. This is usually done by placing a drop of blood from a skin prick onto a glucose strip and then inserting the strip into a glucose meter of a blood sugar tester, a small machine that provides a digital readout of the blood glucose level.

It is important to remember that test results are only a part of a larger picture that has to include your medical history and current health. In case the test results do not return a normal result, it is imperative that you take immediate action and consult a diabetic specialist right away who can guide you with the right treatment and dietary plan.

Blood tests are a very useful testing tool. Blood is a sticky red fluid with a salty taste, and is slightly alkaline in reaction. It is made up of liquid portion which is called as plasma and remaining portion is solid which is called as the blood cells.

The purpose of blood clotting is to plug down and set free an enzyme which reacts with other clotting substances in the blood. The result is a jelly like mass composed of a network of threads around the blood cells. The clot soon reduces its size and serum comes away from it. This serum is used in chemical tests and in the test to find out how the immune system fights diseases.

Blood samples are taken by doctors, seen through a microscope and find out the infectious diseases.

How Blood Test Carried Out?
Blood test is carried out on a small sample of blood, which is taken from a vein in your arm using a fine needle and a small syringe. Although some people dislike needles, the blood test causes minimal discomfort. The sample is then sent to a specialist laboratory, and the results are available within a few days.

Blood will be drawn either at this first visit for routine blood analysis or at a later visit for the Alpha-fetoprotein test. A nurse will take your blood by inserting a needle into a vein on the inside bends of your elbow.

To take finger prick blood test, the nurse initially take a ball of cotton dipped with spirit, cleans with the cotton and will prick the tip of the finger and then squeeze the finger to draw a drop of blood. This blood is placed on a glass slide for laboratory analysis.

If the blood is taken from an artery, it is usually taken from the wrist where there is an artery that is close to the skin. Sometimes artery will not be visible to take blood. It takes little trouble; lastly the artery can be visible. After taking blood from the artery it is necessary to keep a cotton ball on the place where the
injection was made for few minutes to stop bleeding.

How The Blood Is Examined By Doctors?
Blood is made up of liquid plasma and solids the blood cells. Plasma is a pale yellow fluid consisting of water ninety percent, salts including sodium chloride 0.9 percent, proteins including albumen which make the blood sticky, nutrients such as glucose, fats, amino acids and vitamins, waste products such as urea and carbondioxide, antibodies and antitoxins for resistance to disease germs, hormones produced by the endocrine glands, substances for blood clotting and for preventing clotting of blood. Plasma is very important for the life of the tissue cells, conveying to them water and nourishment, and carrying away their waste products. There are three main types of blood cells: red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets. To get the information of these cells, blood samples are taken. These tests are listed below:

Red blood cells are the most numerous. They are formed in the bone marrow and wear out in about three months, so need replacing. They are very tiny discs with no nucleus, and are filled with hemoglobin which is made from iron and protein. Hemoglobin gives the blood its red color. The normal amount of hemoglobin is 14.5 to 15 grams of blood. Lack of iron to make hemoglobin is a common cause of anemia.

Doctors add some stains to the blood smear to test the blood for parasites in the case of sleeping sickness or for malaria. In case if blood poisoned the doctor take test whether any bad bacteria is present.

White blood cells help to fight infection and therefore, are an important part of the immune system. The risk of developing an infection is due to low white blood cell count increases. There are several kinds of white blood cells; Neutrophils are important white cells that help fight infections caused by bacteria and yeasts. Others, called lymphocytes, carry the immunologic memory to protect against viral and other infections, especially those for which people receive vaccinations.

Blood Platelets are produced in the bone marrow and help in the clotting of blood during injury. Platelets are very smaller than red and white blood cells. The risk of bleeding and bruising is due to low platelet count increases.